MEANING OF POWER & POLITICS

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BASES OR SOURCES OF POWER

 The bases or sources of power focus on the interpersonal relationship between manager and the subordinates. The bases or sources of power can be divided into two general groups – formal and personal.

1. Coercive power: This source of power depends on fear. The person with coercive power has the ability to inflict (impose) punishment or aversive consequences on the other person or to make threats that the other person believes will result in punishment or undesirable outcomes.

2. Reward power: This source of power depends on the person's having the ability and resources to reward others. The opposite of coercive power is reward power.

3. Legitimate power: The power a person receives as a result of his or her position in the formal hierarchy of an organization is known as legitimate power.

4. Information power: Power that comes from access to and control over information is information power. People in an organization who have data or knowledge that others need can make those others dependent on them.

1. Expert power: It is more of a personal power rather than organizational power and is the ability to control another person's behavior through the possession of knowledge and expertise that the other person needs and does not possess himself.

2. Referent power: The last category of influence that French and Raven identified was referent power. Its base is identification with a person who has desirable resources or personal traits. Referent power explains why celebrities are paid millions of dollars to endorse products in commercials.

3. Charismatic power: Charismatic power is really an extension of referent power stemming from an individual’s personality and interpersonal style. People with charismatic qualities, although not in formal leadership positions, are able to exert influence over others because of the strength of their heroic qualities.

POWER TACTICS

   Power tactics is to learn how employees translate their power bases into specific actions. Recent research indicates that there are standardized ways by which power holders attempt to get what they want. The findings identified seven tactical dimensions or strategies:

1. Reason: Use of facts and data to make a logical or rational presentation of ideas.

2. Friendliness: Use of flattery, creation of goodwill, acting humble, and being friendly prior to making a request.

3. Coalition: Getting the support of other people in the organization to back up the request.

4. Bargaining: Use of negotiation through the exchange of benefits or favors.

5. Assertiveness: Use of a direct and forceful approach such as demanding compliance with requests, repeating reminders, ordering individuals to do what is asked, and pointing out that rules require compliance.

6. Higher authority: Getting the support of higher levels in the organization to back up requests.

7. Sanction: Use of organizationally derived rewards and punishments.

MEANING OF POLITICAL BEHAVIOR

  Political behavior in organizations is defined as those activities that are not required as part of one's formal role in the organization but that influence, or attempt to influence, the distribution of advantages and disadvantages within the organization.

THE REALITY OF POLITICS

Resources in organizations are also limited, which often turns potential conflict to real conflict. If resources were abundant, then all the various constituencies within the organization could satisfy their goals. But because they are limited, not everyone’s interests can be provided for. Furthermore, whether true or not, gains by one individual or group are often perceived as being at the expense of others within the organization. These forces create a competition among members for the organization’s limited resources.

Maybe the most important factor leading to politics within organizations is the realization that most of the ‘facts’ that are used to allocate the limited resources are open to interpretation.

Therefore, to answer the earlier question of whether it is possible for an organization to be politics-free, we can say ‘yes,’ if all members of the organization hold the same goals and interests, if organizational resources are not scarce, and if performance outcomes are completely clear and objective. But that doesn’t describe the organizational world that most of us live in.

FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO POLITICAL BEHAVIOR

Recent research and observation have identified a number of factors that appear to encourage political behavior. Some are individual factors and some are organizational factors.

• High self-monitors

• Internal locus of control

• High match personality

• Organizational investment

• Perceived job alternatives

• Expectation of success, etc.

• Reallocation of resources

• Promotion opportunities

• Low trust

• Role ambiguity

• Unclear performance evaluation system

• Zero-sum reward practices

• Democratic decision-making

• High performance pressures

• Self-serving senior managers, etc.

DEFENSIVE BEHAVIORS / HOW DO PEOPLE RESPOND TO ORGANIZATIONAL POLITICS

###When politics is seen as a threat and consistently responded to with defensiveness, negative outcomes are almost sure to surface eventually. When people perceive politics as a threat rather than as an opportunity, they often respond with defensive behavior. The defensive behavior may be of three types:

A) Avoiding Action:

1. Overconforming: Strictly interpreting own responsibility by saying things like, “The rules clearly state…” or “This is the way we have always done it.”

2. Buck passing: Transferring responsibility for the execution of a task or decision to someone else.

3. Playing dumb: Avoiding an unwanted task by falsely pleading ignorance or inability.

4. Stretching: Prolonging a task so that one appears to be occupied—for example, turning a two-week task into a four-month job.

5. Stalling: Appearing to be more or less supportive publicly while doing little or nothing privately.

B) Avoiding Blame:

1. Buffing: This is a nice way to refer to “covering your rear.” It describes the practice of rigorously documenting activity to project an image of competence and thoroughness.

2. Playing safe: Evading situations that may reflect unfavorably. It includes taking on only projects with a high probability of success, having risky decisions approved by superiors, qualifying expressions of judgment, and taking neutral positions in conflicts.

3. Justifying: Developing explanations that lessen one’s responsibility for a negative outcome and/or apologizing to demonstrate remorse.

4. Scapegoating: Placing the blame for a negative outcome on external factors that are not entirely blameworthy.

5. Misrepresenting: Manipulation of information by distortion, embellishment, deception, selective presentation, or obfuscation.

C) Avoiding Change:

1. Prevention: Trying to prevent a threatening change from occurring.

2. Self-protection: Acting in ways to protect one’s self-interest during change by guarding information or other resources.

IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT (IM)

Impression management (IM) is a subject that only quite recently has gained the attention of OB researchers. All intended to make them more attractive to others as being perceived positively by others should have benefits for people in organizations. So the process by which individuals attempt to control the impression others form of them is called impression management.

IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT (IM) TECHNIQUES

Techniques used in impression management are:

1. Conformity: Agreeing with someone else's opinion in order to gain his or her approval.

2. Excuses: Explanations of a predicament-creating event aimed at minimizing the apparent severity of the predicament (unfortunate position).

3. Apologies: Admitting responsibility for an undesirable event and simultaneously seeking to get a pardon for the action.

4. Acclaiming: Explanation of favorable events to maximize the desirable implications for oneself.

5. Flattery: Complimenting others about their virtues in an effort to make one appear perceptive and likable.

6. Favors: Doing something nice for someone to gain that person's approval.

7. Association: Enhancing or protecting one's image by managing information about people and things with which one is associated.

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Early research on attitudes assumed that they were casually related to behavior; that is’ the attitudes that people hold determine what they do. In the late 1960s, this assumed relationship between attitudes and behavior (A-B) was challenged by a review of the research. More recent research demonstrates that attitudes significantly predict future behavior; and this relationship can be enhanced by taking moderating variables into account.

Moderating variables: The most powerful moderators have been found to be the importance of the attitudes, its specificity, its accessibility, whether there exist social pressures, and whether the person has direct experience with the attitudes.

Important attitudes are ones that reflect fundamental values, self interest, identification with individual or groups that a person values.

The more specific the attitudes and the more specific the behavior, the stronger the link between these two.

Attitudes are easily remembered are more likely to predict behavior than attitudes that are not accessible in memory. Interestingly, the more likely to remember the attitudes that are frequently expressed.

Discrepancies between attitudes and behavior are more likely to occur when social pressures to behave in certain ways hold exceptional power. This may explain why tobacco executives, who are not smokers themselves and who tend to believe the research linking smoking and cancer, don’t actively discourage officer from smoking in their offices.

Finally, the attitudes – behavior (A-B) relationship is likely to be much stronger if an attitude refers to something with which the individual has direct personal experience. When few experiences regarding an attitudes issues or given little previous thought to it he will tend to infer his attitudes from his behavior. However, when the attitudes have been established for a while and are well defined, those attitudes are likely to guide the behavior.

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MEASURING JOB SATISFACTION

Job satisfaction can be defined as a collection of feelings that an individual holds towards his or her job. The two most widely used approaches are a single global rating and summation score made up of a number of job facets.

1.     Single global rating: The single global method is nothing more than asking individuals to respond to one question, such as “all things considered, how satisfied are you with the job?” respondent then reply by circling a number from one to five that correspond to answers from highly satisfied to highly dissatisfied. 

2.    Summation score: A summation of job facets is more sophisticated. It identified key elements in a job and asks for the employee’s feelings about each. Typical factors that would be included are the nature of the work, supervision, present pay, promotion opportunities and relation with coworkers. These factors are rated on a standardized scale and then added up to create an overall job satisfaction score.

WHAT DETERMINES/DETERMINERS JOB SATISFACTION

1. Mentally challenging work: Employees tend to prefer jobs that give them opportunities to use their skills and abilities and offer a variety of tasks, freedom and feedback on how well they are doing. These characteristics make work mentally challenging.
2. Equitable rewards: Employees want pay systems and promotion policies that they perceive as being just, unambiguous and in line with their expectations. When pay is seen as fair based on job demands, individual skill level and community pay standards, satisfaction is likely to result.
3. Supportive working conditions: Employees are concerned with their work environment for both personal comfort and facilitating doing a good job. Employees prefer physical surroundings that are not dangerous or uncomfortable.
4. Supportive colleagues: People get more out of work than merely money or tangible achievement. For most employees, work also fills the need for social interaction. Having friendly and supportive co-workers leads to increased job satisfaction.

EFFECTS OF JOB SATISFACTION ON EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE

Mangers’ interest in job satisfaction tends to centre on its effect on employee performance.

1. Satisfaction and productivity: Interestingly, if we move from the individual level to that of the organization, there is renewed support for the original satisfaction – performance relationship. When satisfaction and productivity data are gathered for the organization as a whole, rather than at the individual level, we find that the organization with more satisfied employees tends to e more effective than organization with fewer satisfied employees. So it might be true that the happy organizations are more productive.
2. Satisfaction and absenteeism: We find a consistence negative relationship between satisfaction and absenteeism. Although it certainly makes sense that dissatisfied employees are more likely to miss work, other factors have an impact on the relationship and reduce the correlation coefficient.
3. Satisfaction and turnover: Satisfaction is also negatively related to turnover, but the correlation is stronger than what we found for absenteeism. Evidence indicates that an important moderator of the satisfaction – turnover relationship is the employee’s level of performance. Specially, the level of satisfaction is less important in predicting turnover for superior performance.

JOB SATISFACTION AND CUSTOMER SATISFACTION

Employee satisfaction is positively related to customer satisfaction. The evidence indicates that satisfied employees increase customer satisfaction and loyalty. In service organization, customer retention and defection are highly dependent on how frontline employees deal with customers. Satisfied employees are likely to be friendly, upbeat, and responsive – which customers appreciate. As satisfied employees are less prone to turnover, customers are more likely to be encounter familiar faces and received experience service. These qualities build customer satisfaction and loyalty. 

Dissatisfied customers can increase employee job dissatisfaction. Employees who have regular contact with customers report that rude, thoughtless or unreasonably demanding customers adversely effect the employees’ job satisfaction.

Understanding individual behavior within organizations is critical for fostering a productive and harmonious work environment. The behavior of employees is influenced by a range of factors, including their personality traits, perceptions, motivation levels, and job satisfaction. By studying these components, organizations can effectively manage their workforce, enhance performance, and improve employee well-being. This article explores key aspects of individual behavior in organizations, including personality, perception, motivation, and job satisfaction, along with relevant theories that can be applied to improve organizational outcomes.

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Personality: Understanding Personality Traits and Their Influence on Workplace Behavior

Personality plays a significant role in shaping how individuals behave in the workplace. It influences their decision-making processes, interactions with others, and responses to challenges. Personality is generally defined as the set of enduring traits, behaviors, and thoughts that define an individual’s overall style of interacting with the world. Understanding an individual’s personality traits is essential for improving communication, collaboration, and conflict resolution within an organization.

The Big Five Personality Traits

One of the most widely recognized frameworks for understanding personality is the Big Five Personality Traits model, also known as the Five-Factor Model (FFM). This model identifies five key dimensions of personality that influence workplace behavior:

1. Openness to Experience: This trait reflects a person’s willingness to embrace new ideas, experiences, and change. Individuals high in openness tend to be creative, curious, and open-minded, which makes them more adaptable to organizational changes.

2. Conscientiousness: People high in conscientiousness are dependable, organized, and diligent. They are often goal-oriented, self-disciplined, and detail-focused, which makes them valuable in roles requiring precision and responsibility.

3. Extraversion: Extraverted individuals are sociable, energetic, and assertive. They thrive in environments that require social interaction and leadership. Extraversion can influence team dynamics, as extroverts are often seen as natural leaders.

4. Agreeableness: This trait indicates how cooperative, empathetic, and compassionate a person is. High agreeableness fosters positive relationships in the workplace, promoting teamwork and conflict resolution.

5. Neuroticism: Neuroticism is associated with emotional stability. Individuals high in neuroticism may experience more stress, anxiety, and mood swings, which can affect their ability to manage workplace pressures.

Each of these traits impacts how employees interact with their peers, managers, and the organization as a whole. Recognizing and understanding these traits can help managers tailor leadership strategies to match individual personalities, fostering a more productive and positive work environment.

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

Another widely used tool for understanding personality in the workplace is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). The MBTI categorizes individuals into 16 distinct personality types based on preferences in four key areas:

• Extraversion (E) vs. Introversion (I): Focus on the outer world vs. internal thoughts and ideas.
• Sensing (S) vs. Intuition (N): Preference for concrete facts vs. abstract concepts.
• Thinking (T) vs. Feeling (F): Decision-making based on logic vs. personal values.
• Judging (J) vs. Perceiving (P): Preference for a structured, planned approach vs. flexibility and spontaneity.

The MBTI framework helps organizations identify employees’ strengths and challenges in communication, decision-making, and problem-solving. By understanding these preferences, organizations can improve team dynamics and ensure that individuals are placed in roles that align with their personality types, leading to greater job satisfaction and productivity.

Perception: How Perceptions Shape Behavior in Organizations

Perception plays a crucial role in shaping how individuals interpret their environment, make decisions, and interact with others in the workplace. Perception refers to the process through which individuals select, organize, and interpret information about their surroundings. How an employee perceives their work, colleagues, and organization can significantly influence their attitudes and behavior.

Attribution Theory

Attribution Theory is a concept that explains how individuals interpret the causes of their own and others' behaviors. In the workplace, employees may attribute their successes or failures to either internal factors (e.g., ability or effort) or external factors (e.g., luck or environmental conditions). Similarly, they may attribute others' behavior to internal or external factors. These attributions influence how employees perceive their colleagues and how they respond to situations.

For example, if an employee believes their colleague is performing poorly due to laziness (internal attribution), they may feel frustrated or demotivated. However, if they attribute the colleague’s behavior to external factors like personal issues, they may be more empathetic and understanding.

Stereotyping and Halo Effect

Two cognitive biases that can distort perception in organizations are stereotyping and the halo effect.

• Stereotyping involves making assumptions about individuals based on their membership in a particular group, such as gender, age, or ethnicity. This can lead to biased decision-making and unfair treatment in the workplace.

• Halo Effect refers to the tendency to make a generalization about an individual based on one prominent positive or negative trait. For instance, if an employee is highly skilled in one area, a manager might assume they are good at other unrelated tasks, potentially overlooking areas of weakness.

Understanding these biases helps organizations develop fairer evaluation systems and training programs to minimize the impact of distorted perceptions on workplace behavior.

Motivation: Key Motivation Theories and Their Application

Motivation is a central element of individual behavior in organizations. Motivated employees are more likely to be productive, engaged, and committed to achieving organizational goals. Several theories attempt to explain what motivates individuals and how organizations can harness motivation to improve performance.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

One of the most well-known motivation theories is Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, which suggests that individuals have five levels of needs that must be met in order, starting from the most basic:

1. Physiological Needs: Basic needs like food, water, and shelter.
2. Safety Needs: Security, stability, and protection from harm.
3. Social Needs: The need for love, belonging, and relationships.
4. Esteem Needs: The need for respect, recognition, and achievement.
5. Self-Actualization: The need for personal growth, creativity, and fulfillment.

According to Maslow, individuals must satisfy lower-level needs before moving on to higher-level needs. In the workplace, this means that organizations should first address employees’ basic needs (e.g., fair compensation, safe working conditions) before expecting them to be motivated by opportunities for growth or recognition.

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory posits that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction are influenced by two distinct factors:

1. Hygiene Factors: These are factors that prevent dissatisfaction but do not necessarily motivate employees. Examples include salary, job security, and working conditions. While hygiene factors are essential to prevent dissatisfaction, they do not drive motivation.

2. Motivators: These factors lead to higher levels of job satisfaction and motivation. Examples include opportunities for achievement, recognition, responsibility, and personal growth.

To motivate employees effectively, organizations must address hygiene factors to prevent dissatisfaction while also providing motivators to encourage engagement and performance.

Expectancy Theory

Expectancy Theory, developed by Victor Vroom, suggests that individuals are motivated to act in a certain way based on the expected outcomes of their behavior. The theory posits that motivation is influenced by three factors:

1. Expectancy: The belief that effort will lead to performance.
2. Instrumentality: The belief that performance will lead to desired outcomes or rewards.
3. Valence: The value an individual places on the rewards they expect to receive.

If an employee believes that their efforts will lead to good performance, and that good performance will lead to meaningful rewards, they are more likely to be motivated. Managers can use this theory to set clear performance expectations and reward systems that align with employees’ needs and desires.

Equity Theory

Equity Theory, proposed by John Stacey Adams, focuses on how individuals perceive fairness in the workplace. Employees compare their input-to-output ratios (effort vs. rewards) to those of others. If they perceive an imbalance (e.g., they work harder than a colleague but receive less reward), they may experience feelings of inequity, which can lead to dissatisfaction and demotivation.

To maintain motivation, organizations must ensure that employees perceive fairness in their compensation, recognition, and career advancement opportunities.

Job Satisfaction: Factors Influencing Job Satisfaction and Employee Morale

Job satisfaction is a key factor that impacts employee morale, performance, and retention. Employees who are satisfied with their jobs tend to be more motivated, productive, and loyal to the organization. Several factors influence job satisfaction, including job design, relationships with colleagues, compensation, and opportunities for advancement.

Job Characteristics Model

The Job Characteristics Model developed by Hackman and Oldham suggests that certain job characteristics can enhance job satisfaction and motivation. These characteristics include:

1. Skill Variety: The extent to which a job requires different skills and abilities.
2. Task Identity: The degree to which a job involves completing a whole and identifiable task.
3. Task Significance: The perceived impact of the job on others.
4. Autonomy: The level of freedom and independence in performing tasks.
5. Feedback: The degree to which employees receive clear, direct information about their performance.

By designing jobs that incorporate these characteristics, organizations can increase job satisfaction and motivation, leading to higher employee morale and performance.

Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene Theory

As discussed earlier, Herzberg’s **Motivation-H

ygiene Theory** posits that certain factors in the workplace can cause dissatisfaction (hygiene factors) while others can lead to satisfaction (motivators). By addressing both hygiene factors and motivators, organizations can ensure that employees are not only satisfied but also motivated to perform well.

Conclusion

Understanding individual behavior in organizations is essential for creating a positive and productive work environment. By examining personality, perception, motivation, and job satisfaction, organizations can better manage their employees, foster engagement, and achieve long-term success. Through the application of relevant theories and frameworks, businesses can develop strategies that improve employee well-being, enhance performance, and drive organizational growth. By investing in the study and understanding of individual behavior, organizations position themselves for greater efficiency, innovation, and success in an increasingly competitive world.